VOLLEYBALL

Volleyball, popular team sport played by hitting an inflated ball back and forth over a high net. In the indoor game, each team has six players, while in beach volleyball, played outdoors on sand, teams consist of two players each. Points are scored by successfully landing the ball in the court of the opponents without it being returned successfully. The game was invented in 1895 as a recreational pastime by American William G. Morgan, the physical education director of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) chapter in Holyoke, Massachusetts. His game, which he originally called Mintonette, quickly became popular, not only in the United States but also around the world. There are more than 200 national federations in the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB; French for “International Volleyball Federation”), the international governing body for the sport, which is located in Lausanne, Switzerland. An estimated 800 million people play volleyball throughout the world.

The volleyball court, 9 by 18 m (29.5 by 59 ft) in area for indoor play and slightly smaller for beach competition, is divided into two equal sides by a net. Rules for the indoor game recommend a clear, unobstructed area at least 7 m (23 ft) high above the entire court, and a minimum of 2 m (6.7 ft) in the indoor game and 3 m (9.8 ft) in the outdoor game of free space on the perimeter of the court. The net is 10 m (32.8 ft) long and 1 m (3.3 ft) wide and is made of black or dark brown mesh string. It is stretched tightly across the court by its four corners and has an antenna placed above each court sideline, which the ball must pass between when sent over the net. The height of the top of the net is set at 2.43 m (7 ft 11š in) for men, at 2.24 m (7 ft 4‚ in) for women, and at 2.13 m (7 ft) or lower for children aged 12 years or younger. For indoor play, a line 5 cm (2 in) wide, called the 3-meter attack line, extends across each of the two playing areas from sideline to sideline, parallel to and at a distance 3 m (9.8 ft) from the centerline (the line directly below the net).

The volleyball is an inflated sphere with a laceless leather or synthetic leather cover. Smaller and lighter than a basketball, the volleyball is 63.5 to 68.6 cm (25 to 27 in) in circumference and weighs 255 to 283 g (9 to 10 oz).

The players on a six-person volleyball team include three front-row players, who stand near the net, and three back-row players. The server starting the game stands anywhere behind the endline, serving over the net into the court of the opponents by tossing the ball into the air and striking it with the hand or fist. Only one attempt is allowed on the serve. By hitting the ball back and forth over the net, with the hands, forearms, head, or any part of the body, play is continued until one team fails to keep the ball in play—that is, in the air—or until a rule violation is committed. The ball must be returned by a team over the net after no more than three hits, and no player may hit the ball twice in succession. The return over the net must be done without catching, holding, or carrying the ball, without a player touching the net, and without entering the opponents’ area. A player keeps serving as long as his or her team continues to win points. The serve must rotate to a new player each time a team wins back the service.

Traditionally, a point could only be scored by the serving team. If a team failed to score, the serve went over to the other team. This is called a side-out. The exception was in the deciding game of a match, when rally scoring was used. In rally scoring, a point is scored on each serve, whether by the serving team or the nonserving team. Beginning in 1999, international volleyball switched to rally scoring in all games to help shorten match length.

The first team to score 15 points (traditional) or 25 points (rally scoring) wins the game, provided the margin of victory is at least 2 points. An indoor volleyball match consists of the best two out of three or three out of five games. Beach volleyball matches are usually one game, using side-out scoring, or best two out of three using rally scoring. Officials in competitive volleyball include a referee, scorer, umpire, and line judges.

TENNIS

Tennis, game played with a racket and a ball by two (as in singles) or four (as in doubles) competitors, on a rectangular court with a net strung between the midpoints of the longer sides of the court. Tennis may be played indoors or outdoors. The game ranks as one of the most popular spectator and participation sports in the world, with fans and competitors in more than 100 countries. Originally called lawn tennis to distinguish it from the sport of court tennis, from which it was derived, the game is now commonly known as tennis.

Although the origins of tennis are not clear, many experts believe tennis, then called lawn tennis, was invented in 1873 by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield, a British army officer. Although Wingfield claimed that he modeled the game—which he called Sphairistiké (Greek for “playing at ball”)—after an ancient Greek game, many authorities believe that he adapted the principles of the popular English games of court tennis, squash racquets, and badminton for outdoor play. Early players preferred to call Wingfield’s game tennis-on-the-lawn, or lawn tennis.

The game was introduced to Bermuda in 1873, and from Bermuda was brought to the United States by Mary Ewing Outerbridge of Staten Island, New York. The first game of lawn tennis in the United States was probably played in 1874 on the grounds of the Staten Island Cricket and Baseball Club.

The first world amateur championships were held at the All England Lawn Tennis & Croquet Club in Wimbledon, England (men, 1877; women, 1884). By the end of the 19th century, lawn tennis had been introduced into British colonies and other nations throughout the world.

In the United States, local rules and standards for the game varied widely until 1881, when the United States Lawn Tennis Association (now the USTA) was organized to standardize rules and equipment. Under its auspices, play for the annual U.S. singles championships for men began in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1881. The national men’s singles championships continued to take place annually in Newport until 1915, when the competition moved to the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills, New York. The national women’s singles matches began in 1887, at the Philadelphia Cricket Club, and continued there until 1921, when they were also brought to Forest Hills.

At the beginning of the 20th century the major international tournaments were Wimbledon and the U.S. championships. Early Wimbledon men’s champions included British players Arthur Gore and brothers Reggie and Laurie Doherty. Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers of England won the women’s title at Wimbledon seven times (1903, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1914). The U.S. men’s championships were dominated by American William Larned, who won seven times (1901, 1902, 1907-1911). Americans Elisabeth Moore and Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman both won several U.S. women’s championships in the early 1900s, and Norwegian-born Molla Bjurstedt Mallory won eight such titles (1915-1918, 1920-1922, 1926). (Unless noted, all titles referred to in this article are singles titles).

The court is marked with white lines to indicate its dimensions and service areas. The court is 78 ft (23.8 m) long, divided into two equal sides by a net standing 3 ft (0.9 m) high at the center of the court. For singles the court is 27 ft (8.2 m) wide. For doubles the addition of alleys 4.5 ft (1.4 m) wide along the two longer sides increases the width to 36 ft (11 m). (For more detail, see accompanying diagram.) Courts may be made up of grass, clay, asphalt, concrete, wood, artificial grass, or composite materials.

A tennis ball is hollow and composed of inflated rubber covered with a fabric made of wool and artificial fibers. Yellow and white balls are used in tournament competition and are the most common colors, although balls of other colors are manufactured. A standard tennis ball measures between 2.5 and 2.6 in (6.35 and 6.6 cm) in diameter and weighs between 1.98 and 2.1 oz (56 and 59.4 g). Two new sizes of tennis balls were introduced in 2001 with characteristics tailored to specific court surfaces. One of these is termed “fast,” to be used on courts classified as “slow pace” (such as clay courts). The other new type of ball (labeled “slow”) is designed for use on “fast pace” courts (such as grass). Both new types are slightly larger than the standard ball but weigh about the same. 

There is no uniform design of tennis rackets, and their sizes and shapes vary. The general classifications, determined by the size of the racket head, are standard, midsize, oversize, and super oversize. In tournament play, the maximum length of a racket is 29 in (73.7 cm). The maximum width is 12.5 in (31.8 cm). The head of the racket may not exceed a length of 15.5 in (39.4 cm) and a width of 11.5 in (29.2 cm), and it is usually strung with resilient gut or nylon or other synthetic materials. There are no restrictions on weight. Rackets were originally made of wood, but now virtually all rackets are made of materials such as aluminum, graphite, and carbon fiber, which are stronger and lighter than wood. The racket handle is generally covered with a rubber or leather grip. Modern designers have also incorporated vibration-dampening technology and made rackets much more durable. Players usually wear lightweight clothing, traditionally white, and shoes with nonskid rubber soles.

FOOTBALL / SOCCER

 

Soccer, game played by two teams on a rectangular field, in which players attempt to knock a round ball through the opponents’ goal, using any part of the body except the hands. Generally, players use their feet and heads as they kick, dribble, and pass the ball toward the goal. One player on each team guards the goal. This player, the goalkeeper, is the only player allowed to touch the ball with the hands while it is in play.

Soccer is a free-flowing game that has relatively few rules and requires little equipment. All that is needed to play is an area of open space and a ball. Much of the world's soccer is played informally, without field markings or real goals. In many places, the game is played barefoot using rolled-up rags or newspapers as a ball. Soccer is the world's most popular sport, played by people of all ages in about 200 countries. The sport has millions of fans throughout the world.

Evidence from many ancient societies—Chinese, Greek, Maya, and Egyptian—reveals that kicking games were a part of those cultures. The modern game of soccer began in the 19th century in England, when a variety of football games developed, all of which involved both handling and kicking the ball. The first laws of the modern game were supposedly drafted in 1862 by J. C. Thring of the Uppingham School. At a meeting of the London Football Association (FA) in 1863, the game was split into rugby football (the parent sport of American football), which permitted handling and carrying the ball, and association football, or soccer, which banned the use of the hands.

At first soccer was played mostly in private schools and universities, but before long people of the working classes picked up the sport. The FA Cup, a tournament first organized in 1871, sparked the rapid spread of soccer in England. (The tournament, which is still played, climaxes with the annual Cup Final at Wembley Stadium in London.) An 1872 game in Glasgow, Scotland, between an English all-star team and its Scottish counterpart marked the beginning of international play. In 1885 the FA recognized the legitimacy of professional players and regular league play started in England in 1888.

Soccer's global spread began in the late 1800s, when British traders, sailors, and soldiers carried the sport all over the world. Germans, Italians, and Austrians were eager converts in Europe, while Argentines, Uruguayans, and Brazilians took quickly to the sport in South America. FIFA was formed in 1904. By 1930 professional leagues were operating in many countries, and that year FIFA organized the first World Cup in Uruguay.

One nation that long resisted soccer was the United States. Soccer was played in the United States, mostly among immigrants, but it was not until the 1970s that a national professional league gained some popularity. The North American Soccer League (NASL), founded in 1968, earned a devoted following thanks in part to the import of players such as Brazilian star Pelé, and by 1980 the league had 24 teams. But the league was not financially sound, and in 1984 it went out of business. However, the NASL left a legacy of growing American involvement in the sport at the youth level. By the 1990s soccer was the fastest-growing college and high school sport in the United States.

The growing number of players in the United States attracted sponsorship for the sport, and faith in its future was recognized by FIFA when it granted the USSF the right to organize the 1994 World Cup. The event proved to be a great success, attracting nearly 3.6 million attendees over the course of its 52 games. This strong show of support led to the formation of Major League Soccer, which brought top-level soccer back to the United States two years later.

A new U.S. women’s professional league, the Women’s United Soccer Association (WUSA), started up in 2001. The league, which was formed after the great success of the Women’s World Cup in 1999, showcased many of the top female players from around the world. The eight-team league lasted three seasons before financial problems forced it to shut down after the 2003 season.

In 2002 two countries shared World Cup hosting duties for the first time, as Japan and South Korea teamed up for the first World Cup to be held in Asia. Germany was selected to host the 2006 World Cup. China was named host of the 2003 Women’s World Cup, but the competition was moved to the United States after severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) emerged as a serious health problem in China. China then hosted the 2007 Women’s World Cup. See also World Cup (soccer).

Only in the United States and Canada is the game referred to as soccer. Outside these countries the sport is commonly called football, or fútbol in Spanish-speaking countries, where the game is particularly popular. The official name of the sport is association football. The word soccer is a slang corruption of the abbreviation assoc.

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is the worldwide governing body of soccer. FIFA governs all levels of soccer, including professional play, Olympic competitions, and youth leagues. The organization also governs the sport’s premier event, the World Cup, an international competition held every four years pitting national teams from 32 countries against one another.

BASKETBALL

Basketball, fast-paced game played on a rectangular court, generally indoors, by two five-player teams. The primary objective of the game is to score more points than the opposition by putting a round ball through a circular band, called a rim. The two rims are at each end of the court, placed 10 ft (3.1 m) above the ground and connected to a backboard, a rectangular board that hangs from the ceiling or is supported in the air on a pole or some other structure. One of the most popular sports in the world, basketball is played by men and women of all ages and ability levels in more than 200 countries.

In early December 1891, Luther Gulick, chairman of the physical education department at the School for Christian Workers (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts, instructed physical education teacher James Naismith to invent a new game to entertain the school's athletes during the winter season. With an ordinary soccer ball, Naismith assembled his class of 18 young men, appointed captains of two nine-player teams, and introduced them to the game of Basket Ball (then two words). Naismith, who had outlined 13 original rules, dispatched the school janitor to find two boxes to be fastened to the balcony railing at opposite sides of the gymnasium, where they would serve as goals. The school janitor, however, only found two half-bushel peach baskets, and the game was played with these.

While the dimensions of individual basketball courts vary, a playing area 84 ft (25.6 m) long and 50 ft (15.2 m) wide—predominantly used in recreational, high school, and intercollegiate competition—is considered ideal for most players. Professional basketball courts are slightly larger, 94 ft (28.7 m) long and 50 ft wide. In addition to size, courts can vary in other ways, such as in the radius of the circle situated at the center of the court and in the distance of the 3-point line (from beyond which a score counts for 3 points) from the basket. For example, the 3-point line in high school and college games is 19 ft 9 in (6 m) from the basket, while in international play it is 21 ft 6 in (6.6 m), and in the National Basketball Association (NBA) it extends as far as 23 ft 9 in (7.2 m). The backboards were originally used to prevent spectators from interfering with play. They are generally 4 by 6 ft (1.2 by 1.8 m) and are connected to cast-iron rims, or baskets, that are 18 in (45.7 cm) in diameter. Each basket has a white, nylon-mesh net 15 to 18 in (38.1 to 45.7 cm) in length connected to iron loops on the rim.

In the early days of its development, basketball was played with a soccer ball. Today, the standard basketball is generally orange or brown in color, with an outer cover of leather or nylon and a pebbled (indented) surface to help players grip and control the ball. In men's play, a basketball is 29.5 to 30 in (74.9 to 76.2 cm) in circumference and 20 to 22 oz (567 to 624 g) in weight. In women's play the basketball can be slightly smaller and lighter, 28.5 to 29 in (72.4 to 73.7 cm) in circumference and 18 to 20 oz (510 to 567 g) in weight. The standard basketball uniform consists of sneakers, socks, a tank-top shirt, and shorts. Uniforms are often elaborately designed and manufactured from synthetic fabrics such as nylon, rayon, and polyester. Each player's uniform has a number, for identification, that is usually displayed on both sides of the shirt. Sometimes the player's name is displayed on the back of the shirt as well.

A basketball team is organized, guided, and instructed by a coach. The team consists of five players—two guards, two forwards, and one center—all of whom play offense and defense. The guards—the point guard (known in basketball terminology as the 1 guard) and the shooting guard (2 guard)—comprise what is called the backcourt. The point guard is generally the leader of the team on the court, acting as an extension of the coach. The point guard must have exceptional ball-handling and passing skills, as well as good vision (ability to see clearly what is happening in all parts of the court). The shooting guard is generally a good ball handler with excellent shooting and scoring talents. The small forward, the power forward, and the center compose what is called the frontcourt. The small forward (3 player) is usually a strong scorer from both near the basket and at a distance. This player must have good fundamental skills, including rebounding, ball handling, and passing. The power forward (4 player), who must be big and strong, primarily concentrates on defense and rebounding. The center (5 player) is usually the tallest player on the team, serving as the cornerstone of most play. Good centers score points on offense and block shots on defense. Although there are specific positions, players can play anywhere on the court, according to the team's strategy.